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The Science

Scientific References

Our pharmacogenetic testing recommendations are grounded in rigorous, peer-reviewed scientific research. The references below organize the evidence base by the biological systems our reports interpret.

Metabolism (P450)

  1. Bousman CA, Stevenson JM, Ramsey LB, Sangkuhl K, Hicks JK, Strawn JR, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) Guideline for CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2B6, SLC6A4, and HTR2A Genotypes and Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Antidepressants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2023 Apr 9. doi: 10.1002/cpt.2903. View source
  2. Hicks JK, Sangkuhl K, Swen JJ, Ellingrod VL, Müller DJ, Shimoda K, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline (CPIC) for CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 Genotypes and Dosing of Tricyclic Antidepressants: 2016 Update. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017 Jun 15;102(1):37–44. View source
  3. Brouwer JMJL, Nijenhuis M, Soree B, Guchelaar H, Swen JJ, van Schaik RHN, et al. Dutch Pharmacogenetics Working Group (DPWG) guideline for the gene–drug interaction between CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 and SSRIs. Eur J Hum Genet. 2021 Nov 16;30(10):1114–20. View source
  4. Eum S, Sayre F, Lee AM, Stingl JC, Bishop JR. Association of CYP2B6 genetic polymorphisms with bupropion and hydroxybupropion exposure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy. 2021 Nov 23;42(1):34–44. View source
  5. Zhu AZX, Cox LS, Nollen N, Faseru B, Okuyemi KS, Ahluwalia JS, et al. CYP2B6 and Bupropion's Smoking-Cessation Pharmacology: The Role of Hydroxybupropion. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2012 Dec;92(6):771–7. View source
  6. Brown JT, Bishop JR, Sangkuhl K, Nurmi EL, Mueller DJ, Dinh JC, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline for Cytochrome P450 (CYP)2D6 Genotype and Atomoxetine Therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2019 Jul;106(1):94–102. View source
  7. Crews KR, Monte AA, Huddart R, Caudle KE, Kharasch ED, Gaedigk A, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guideline for CYP2D6, OPRM1, and COMT Genotypes and Select Opioid Therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2021 Oct;110(4):888–96. View source
  8. Matic M, Nijenhuis M, Soree B, de Boer-Veger NJ, Buunk AM, Houwink EJF, et al. Dutch Pharmacogenetics Working Group (DPWG) guideline for the gene–drug interaction between CYP2D6 and opioids (codeine, tramadol and oxycodone). Eur J Hum Genet. 2022 Oct;30(10):1105–13. View source

Blood-Brain Barrier (ABCB1)

  1. O'Brien FE, Dinan TG, Griffin BT, Cryan JF. Interactions between antidepressants and P-glycoprotein at the blood–brain barrier: clinical significance of in vitro and in vivo findings. Br J Pharmacol. 2012 Jan;165(2):289–312. View source
  2. Holsboer F. Clinical Impact of Pharmacogenetic Testing on Antidepressant Therapy. Ann Depress Anxiety. 2017 Sep 8;4(1):1085. View source
  3. Uhr M, Tontsch A, Namendorf C, Ripke S, Lucae S, Ising M, et al. Polymorphisms in the drug transporter gene ABCB1 predict antidepressant treatment response in depression. Neuron. 2008 Jan 24;57(2):203–9. View source
  4. Breitenstein B, Brückl T, Ising M, Müller-Myhsok B, Holsboer F, Czamara D. ABCB1 Gene Variants and Antidepressant Treatment Outcome: A Meta-Analysis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2015 Jun;168B(4):274–83. View source
  5. Breitenstein B, Scheuer S, Brückl TM, Meyer J, Ising M, Uhr M, et al. Association of ABCB1 gene variants, plasma antidepressant concentration, and treatment response: Results from a randomized clinical study. J Psychiatr Res. 2016 Feb;73:86–95. View source
  6. Brückl TM, Uhr M. ABCB1 genotyping in the treatment of depression. Pharmacogenomics. 2016 Dec 5;17(18):2039–69. View source
  7. Uhr M, Steckler T, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F. Penetration of Amitriptyline, but Not of Fluoxetine, into Brain is Enhanced in Mice with Blood–Brain Barrier Deficiency Due to Mdr1a P-Glycoprotein Gene Disruption. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Apr;22(4):380–7. View source
  8. Doran A, Obach RS, Smith BJ, Hosea NA, Becker S, Callegari E, et al. The impact of P-glycoprotein on the disposition of drugs targeted for indications of the central nervous system: Evaluation using the MDR1A/1B knockout mouse model. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005 Jan;33(1):165–74. View source
  9. Srivalli KMR, Lakshmi PK. Overview of P-glycoprotein inhibitors: a rational outlook. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2012 Sep;48(3):353–67. View source

Serotonin System

  1. Pettitt A. Genetic Variations in the Serotonergic System Mediate a Combined, Weakened Response to SSRI Treatment: A Proposed Model. eNeuro. 2015 Jun 5;2(3). View source
  2. Coplan JD, Gopinath S, Abdallah CG, Berry BR. A Neurobiological Hypothesis of Treatment-Resistant Depression: Mechanisms for Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Non-Efficacy. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2014 May 20;8(8). View source
  3. McIntyre RS. The role of new antidepressants in clinical practice in Canada: a brief review of vortioxetine, levomilnacipran ER, and vilazodone. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2017 Nov;13:2913–9. View source
  4. Porcelli S, Drago A, Fabbri C, Gibiino S, Calati R, Serretti A. Pharmacogenetics of antidepressant response. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2011 Mar 1;36(2):87–113. View source
  5. Stein K, Maruf AA, Müller DJ, Bishop JR, Bousman CA. Serotonin Transporter Genetic Variation and Antidepressant Response and Tolerability: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021 Dec 9;11(12):1334. View source
  6. Stevenson JM. Insights and barriers to clinical use of serotonin transporter pharmacogenetics in antidepressant therapy. Pharmacogenomics. 2018 Feb 1;19(3):167–70. View source
  7. Mrazek DA, Rush AJ, Biernacka JM, O'Kane DJ, Cunningham JM, Wieben ED, et al. SLC6A4 variation and citalopram response. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 2009 Apr 5;150B(3):341–51. View source
  8. Wei YB, McCarthy M, Ren H, Carrillo-Roa T, Shekhtman T, DeModena A, et al. A functional variant in the serotonin receptor 7 gene (HTR7), rs7905446, is associated with good response to SSRIs in bipolar and unipolar depression. Molecular Psychiatry. 2019 Mar 15. View source
  9. McMahon FJ, Buervenich S, Charney D, Lipsky R, Rush AJ, Wilson AF, et al. Variation in the Gene Encoding the Serotonin 2A Receptor Is Associated with Outcome of Antidepressant Treatment. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 2006 May;78(5):804–14. View source
  10. Blasi G, Virgilio CD, Papazacharias A, Taurisano P, Gelao B, Fazio L, et al. Converging Evidence for the Association of Functional Genetic Variation in the Serotonin Receptor 2a Gene With Prefrontal Function and Olanzapine Treatment. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013 Sep 1;70(9):921–30. View source
  11. Lucae S, Ising M, Horstmann S, Baune BT, Arolt V, Müller-Myhsok B, et al. HTR2A gene variation is involved in antidepressant treatment response. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010 Jan;20(1):65–8. View source
  12. Mekli K, Payton A, Miyajima F, Platt H, Thomas E, Downey D, et al. The HTR1A and HTR1B receptor genes influence stress-related information processing. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011 Jan;21(1):129–39. View source
  13. Bétry C, Etiévant A, Oosterhof C, Ebert B, Sanchez C, Haddjeri N. Role of 5-HT3 Receptors in the Antidepressant Response. Pharmaceuticals. 2011 Apr 7;4(4):603–29. View source
  14. Shalimova A, Babasieva V, Chubarev VN, Tarasov VV, Schiöth HB, Mwinyi J. Therapy response prediction in major depressive disorder: current and novel genomic markers influencing pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenomics. 2021 Jun;22(8). View source
  15. Kim HW, Kang JI, Lee SH, An SK, Sohn SY, Hwang EH, et al. Common variants of HTR3 genes are associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder and its phenotypic expression. Scientific Reports. 2016 Sep;6(1). View source
  16. Nguyen CT, Rosen JA, Bota RG. Aripiprazole Partial Agonism at 5-HT2C. The Primary Care Companion For CNS Disorders. 2012 Oct 18. View source
  17. Maffioletti E, Valsecchi P, Minelli A, Magri C, Bonvicini C, Barlati S, et al. Association study between HTR2A rs6313 polymorphism and early response to risperidone and olanzapine in schizophrenia patients. Drug Development Research. 2020 May 27;81(6):754–61. View source
  18. Commons KG, Linnros SE. Delayed Antidepressant Efficacy and the Desensitization Hypothesis. ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 2019 Jul 17;10(7):3048–52. View source
  19. Albert PR, Le François B, Millar AM. Transcriptional dysregulation of 5-HT1A autoreceptors in mental illness. Molecular Brain. 2011;4(1):21. View source
  20. Richardson-Jones JW, Craige CP, Guiard BP, Stephen A, Metzger KL, Kung HF, et al. 5-HT1A Autoreceptor Levels Determine Vulnerability to Stress and Response to Antidepressants. Neuron. 2010 Jan;65(1):40–52. View source

Dopamine System

  1. Jones JD, Comer SD. A review of pharmacogenetic studies of substance-related disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2015 Jul;152:1–14. View source
  2. Moyer RA, Wang D, Papp AC, Smith RM, Duque L, Mash DC, et al. Intronic Polymorphisms Affecting Alternative Splicing of Human Dopamine D2 Receptor Are Associated with Cocaine Abuse. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010 Dec 8;36(4):753–62. View source
  3. Lerman C, Jepson C, Wileyto EP, Epstein LH, Rukstalis M, Patterson F, et al. Role of Functional Genetic Variation in the Dopamine D2 Receptor (DRD2) in Response to Bupropion and Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Tobacco Dependence: Results of Two Randomized Clinical Trials. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006 Jan 1;31(1):231–42. View source
  4. Porcelli S, Drago A, Fabbri C, Gibiino S, Calati R, Serretti A. Pharmacogenetics of antidepressant response. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2011 Mar 1;36(2):87–113. View source
  5. He Q, Shen Z, Ren L, Wang X, Qian M, Zhu J, et al. The association of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) rs4680 polymorphisms and generalized anxiety disorder in the Chinese Han population. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology. 2020;13(7):1712–9. View source
  6. Fawver J, Flanagan M, Smith T, Drouin M, Mirro M. The association of COMT genotype with bupropion treatment response in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Brain and Behavior. 2020. View source
  7. Baune BT, Hohoff C, Berger K, Neumann A, Mortensen S, Roehrs T, et al. Association of the COMT val158met Variant with Antidepressant Treatment Response in Major Depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007 May 23;33(4):924–32. View source
  8. Ochi T, Vyalova NM, Losenkov IS, Paderina DZ, Pozhidaev IV, Loonen AJM, et al. Preliminary Pharmacogenetic Study to Explore Putative Dopaminergic Mechanisms of Antidepressant Action. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021 Aug 1;11(8):731. View source
  9. ElSayed N, Yamamoto K, Froehlich T. Genetic Influence on Efficacy of Pharmacotherapy for Pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Overview and Current Status of Research. 2020. View source
  10. Belujon P, Grace AA. Dopamine System Dysregulation in Major Depressive Disorders. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2017 Jun 29;20(12):1036–46. View source
  11. Gong L, He C, Yin Y, Wang H, Ye Q, Bai F, et al. Mediating Role of the Reward Network in the Relationship between the Dopamine Multilocus Genetic Profile and Depression. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2017. View source
  12. Gomez-Sanchez CI, Carballo JJ, Riveiro-Alvarez R, Soto-Insuga V, Rodrigo M, Mahillo-Fernandez I, et al. Pharmacogenetics of methylphenidate in childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: long-term effects. Scientific Reports. 2017 Sep 4;7(1). View source
  13. Salatino-Oliveira A, Rohde LA, Hutz MH. The dopamine transporter role in psychiatric phenotypes. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 2017 Aug 2;177(2):211–31. View source
  14. Stahl SM, Pradko JF, Haight BR, Modell JG, Rockett CB, Learned-Coughlin S. A Review of the Neuropharmacology of Bupropion, a Dual Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitor. Primary Care Companion to The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2004;6(4):159–66. View source
  15. Liu S, Green CE, Lane SD, Kosten TR, Moeller FG, Nielsen DA, et al. The influence of dopamine β-hydroxylase gene polymorphism rs1611115 on levodopa/carbidopa treatment for cocaine dependence. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics. 2014 Jul;24(7):370–3. View source
  16. Demers CH, Bogdan R, Agrawal A. The Genetics, Neurogenetics and Pharmacogenetics of Addiction. Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports. 2014 Jan 11;1(1):33–44. View source

Norepinephrine System

  1. Froehlich TE, Epstein JN, Nick TG, Melguizo Castro MS, Stein MA, Brinkman WB, et al. Pharmacogenetic predictors of methylphenidate dose-response in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011 Nov 1;50(11):1129–1139.e2. View source
  2. Hain DT, Al Habbab T, Cogan ES, Johnson HL, Law RA, Lewis DJ. Review and Meta-analysis on the Impact of the ADRA2A Variant rs1800544 on Methylphenidate Outcomes in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science. 2022 Apr 1;2(2):106–14. View source
  3. Marshe VS, Maciukiewicz M, Rej S, Tiwari AK, Sibille E, Blumberger DM, et al. Norepinephrine Transporter Gene Variants and Remission From Depression With Venlafaxine Treatment in Older Adults. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2017 May;174(5):468–75. View source
  4. Aldosary F, Norris S, Tremblay P, James J, Ritchie J, Blier P. Differential Potency of Venlafaxine, Paroxetine, and Atomoxetine to Inhibit Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2022;25(4):283. View source
  5. Castro Gonçalves AB, Ferreira Fratelli C, Saraiva Siqueira JW, Canongia de Abreu Cardoso Duarte L, Ribeiro Barros A, Possatti I, et al. MAOA uVNTR Genetic Variant and Major Depressive Disorder: A Systematic Review. Cells. 2022 Oct 17;11(20):3267. View source
  6. Chappell K, Colle R, Bouligand J, Trabado S, Fève B, Becquemont L, et al. The MAOA rs979605 Genetic Polymorphism Is Differentially Associated with Clinical Improvement Following Antidepressant Treatment between Male and Female Depressed Patients. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023 Jan 1;24(1):497. View source
  7. He Q, Shen Z, Ren L, Wang X, Qian M, Zhu J, et al. The association of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) rs4680 polymorphisms and generalized anxiety disorder in the Chinese Han population. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology. 2020;13(7):1712–9. View source
  8. Tang Z, Zhang S, Guo D, Wang H. Association between COMT gene Val108/158Met and antidepressive treatment response: A meta-analysis. Gene. 2020 Apr;734:144333. View source
  9. Fawver J, Flanagan M, Smith T, Drouin M, Mirro M. The association of COMT genotype with bupropion treatment response in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Brain and Behavior. 2020 May 27;10(7). View source
  10. Bruxel EM, Akutagava-Martins GC, Salatino-Oliveira A, Contini V, Kieling C, Hutz MH, et al. ADHD pharmacogenetics across the life cycle: New findings and perspectives. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 2014 May 8;165(4):263–82. View source
  11. Yuan D, Zhang M, Huang Y, Wang X, Jiao J, Huang Y. Noradrenergic genes polymorphisms and response to methylphenidate in children with ADHD. Medicine. 2021 Nov 19;100(46):e27858. View source
  12. Pearson-Fuhrhop KM, Dunn EC, Mortero S, Devan WJ, Falcone GJ, Lee P, et al. Dopamine Genetic Risk Score Predicts Depressive Symptoms in Healthy Adults and Adults with Depression. PLoS ONE. 2014 May 16;9(5):e93772. View source
  13. Ochi T, Vyalova NM, Losenkov IS, Paderina DZ, Pozhidaev IV, Loonen AJM, et al. Polymorphisms in the adrenergic neurotransmission pathway impact antidepressant response in depressed patients. Neuroscience Applied. 2023 Jan 1;2(2):101016. View source
  14. Yin L, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Yu T, He G, Sun X. TPH, SLC6A2, SLC6A3, DRD2 and DRD4 Polymorphisms and Neuroendocrine Factors Predict SSRIs Treatment Outcome in the Chinese Population with Major Depression. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2015 Feb 2;48(3):95–103. View source

Glutamate–GABA System

  1. Saez E, Erkoreka L, Moreno-Calle T, Berjano B, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Basterreche N, et al. Genetic variables of the glutamatergic system associated with treatment-resistant depression: A review of the literature. World Journal of Psychiatry. 2022 Jul 19;12(7):884–96. View source
  2. Duman RS, Sanacora G, Krystal JH. Altered Connectivity in Depression: GABA and Glutamate Neurotransmitter Deficits and Reversal by Novel Treatments. Neuron. 2019 Apr 3;102. View source
  3. Zhang X, Norton J, Carrière I, Ritchie K, Chaudieu I, Ryan J, et al. Preliminary evidence for a role of the adrenergic nervous system in generalized anxiety disorder. Scientific Reports. 2017 Feb 15;7:42676. View source
  4. Rose CF, Verkhratsky A, Parpura V. Astrocyte glutamine synthetase: pivotal in health and disease. Biochemical Society Transactions. 2013;41(6). View source
  5. Adell A. Brain NMDA Receptors in Schizophrenia and Depression. Biomolecules. 2020 Jun 23. View source
  6. Newton DF, Fee C, Nikolova YS, Sibille E. Altered GABAergic Function, Cortical Microcircuitry, and Information Processing in Depression. In: Neurobiology of Depression. View source
  7. Lee LC, Cho YC, Lin PJ, Yeh TC, Chang CY, Yeh TK. Influence of Genetic Variants of the N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor on Emotion and Social Behavior in Adolescents. Neural Plasticity. 2016;2016:6851592. View source
  8. Myers SJ, Yuan H, Kang JQ, Tan FCK, Traynelis SF, Low CM. Distinct roles of GRIN2A and GRIN2B variants in neurological conditions. F1000Research. 2019;8:1940. View source
  9. Schmidt MV, Trümbach D, Weber P, Wagner K, Scharf SH, Liebl C, et al. Individual Stress Vulnerability Is Predicted by Short-Term Memory and AMPA Receptor Subunit Ratio in the Hippocampus. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2010 Dec 15;30(50):16949–58. View source
  10. Wierońska JM, Pałucha-Poniewiera A, Nowak G, Pilc A. Depression Viewed as a GABA/Glutamate Imbalance in the Central Nervous System. In: Clinical, Research and Treatment Approaches to Affective Disorders. Polish Academy of Science; 2012 Feb. View source
  11. Sokolowski M, Ben-Efraim YJ, Wasserman J, Wasserman D. Glutamatergic GRIN2B and polyaminergic ODC1 genes in suicide attempts: associations and gene–environment interactions with childhood/adolescent physical assault. Molecular Psychiatry. 2013;18:985–92. View source
  12. Gareeva AE, Zakirov DF, Khusnutdinova EK. Association Polymorphic Variants of GRIN2B Gene with Paranoid Schizophrenia and Response to Typical Neuroleptics in Russians and Tatars from Bashkortostan Republic. Russian Journal of Genetics. 2013;49(9):962–8. View source
  13. Zhang C, Li Z, Wu Z, Chen J, Wang Z, Peng D, et al. A study of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor gene (GRIN2B) variants as predictors of treatment-resistant major depression. Psychopharmacology. 2014;231:685–93. View source
  14. Beanes G, Caliman-Fontes AT, Souza-Marques B, Silva HDS, Leal GC, Carneiro BA, et al. Effects of GRIN2B, GRIA1, and BDNF Polymorphisms on the Therapeutic Action of Ketamine and Esketamine in Treatment-Resistant Depression Patients: Secondary Analysis From a Randomized Clinical Trial. Clinical Neuropharmacology. 2022 Nov–Dec;45(6). View source

Immune System

  1. Han QQ, Yu J. Inflammation: a mechanism of depression? Neuroscience Bulletin. 2014 Jun 1;30(3):515–23. View source
  2. Lee CH, Giuliani F. The role of inflammation in depression and fatigue. Frontiers in Immunology. 2019 Jul 19. View source
  3. Girotti M, Donegan JJ, Morilak DA. Influence of hypothalamic IL-6/gp130 receptor signaling on the HPA axis response to chronic stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013 Jul;38(7):1158–69. View source
  4. Himmerich H, Patsalos O, Lichtblau N, Ibrahim MAA, Dalton B. Cytokine Research in Depression: Principles, Challenges, and Open Questions. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2019 Feb 7. View source
  5. Felger JC, Lotrich FE. Inflammatory Cytokines in Depression: Neurobiological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Neuroscience. 2013 Aug 29;246:199–229. View source

HPA Axis

  1. DeRijk RH, van Leeuwen N, Klok MD, Zitman FG. Corticosteroid receptor-gene variants: Modulators of the stress-response and implications for mental health. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2008;585:492–501. View source
  2. Starr LR, Huang M. HPA-axis multilocus genetic variation moderates associations between environmental stress and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Development and Psychopathology. 2018:1–14. View source
  3. Li M, Liu S, D'Arcy C, Gao T, Meng X. Interactions of childhood maltreatment and genetic variations in adult depression: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2020;276:119–36. View source
  4. Terock J, Van der Auwera S, Janowitz D, Wittfeld K, Teumer A, Grabe HJ. Functional polymorphisms of the mineralocorticoid receptor gene NR3C2 are associated with diminished memory decline: Results from a longitudinal general-population study. Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine. 2020 Sep;8(9):e1345. View source
  5. Castro-Vale I, Durães C, van Rossum EFC, Staufenbiel SM, Severo M, Lemos MC, et al. The Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene (NR3C1) 9β SNP Is Associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Healthcare (Basel). 2021 Feb;9(2):173. View source
  6. Zannas AS, Wiechmann T, Gassen NC, Binder EB. Gene–Stress–Epigenetic Regulation of FKBP5: Clinical and Translational Implications. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016 Jan;41(1):261–74. View source
  7. Grasso DJ, Drury S, Briggs-Gowan M, Johnson A, Ford J, Lapidus G, et al. Adverse childhood experiences, posttraumatic stress, and FKBP5 methylation patterns in postpartum women and their newborn infants. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2020 Apr;114:104604. View source
  8. Symonds CS. The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis in Depression: a focus on the hippocampus [PhD thesis]. University of Manchester; 2013. View source

IntraMind

  1. Fernstrom JD. Dietary effects on brain serotonin synthesis: relationship to appetite regulation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;42(5):1072-1082.
  2. Young SN. Increasing serotonin in the human brain without drugs. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2007;32(6):394-399.
  3. Jenkins TA, Nguyen JCD, Polglaze KE, Bertrand PP. Influence of tryptophan and serotonin on mood and cognition with a possible role of the gut-brain axis. Nutrients. 2016;8(1):56. doi:10.3390/nu8010056. View source
  4. Höglund E, Øverli Ø, Winberg S. Tryptophan metabolic pathways and brain serotonergic activity: a comparative review. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019;10:158. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00158. View source
  5. Fernstrom MH, Fernstrom JD. Brain tryptophan concentrations and serotonin synthesis remain responsive to food consumption after the ingestion of sequential meals. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;61(2):312-319.
  6. Wurtman RJ, Wurtman JJ. Carbohydrate craving, obesity and brain serotonin. Appetite. 1986;7(Suppl):99-103.
  7. Tang J, et al. A comprehensive review of nutritional influences on serotonin regulation. Nutrients. 2025.
  8. Heijnen S, Hommel B, Kibele A, Colzato LS. Neuromodulation of aerobic exercise: a review. Front Psychol. 2016;6:1890. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01890. View source
  9. Basso JC, Suzuki WA. The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: a review. Brain Plast. 2017;2(2):127-152.
  10. Fernstrom JD. Tyrosine, phenylalanine, and catecholamine synthesis and function in the brain. J Nutr. 2007;137(6 Suppl 1):1539S-1547S.
  11. Lieberman HR, et al. Tyrosine and stress: human and animal studies. In: Food Components to Enhance Performance. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 1994.
  12. Jongkees BJ, Hommel B, Kühn S, Colzato LS. Effect of tyrosine supplementation on clinical and healthy populations under stress or cognitive demand: a review. J Psychiatr Res. 2015;70:50-57.
  13. Kühn S, Düzel S, Colzato LS, et al. Food for thought: association between dietary tyrosine and cognitive performance in younger and older adults. NeuroImage. 2019;183:864-872.
  14. Heijnen S, Hommel B, Kibele A, Colzato LS. Neuromodulation of aerobic exercise: a review. Front Psychol. 2016;6:1890.
  15. Basso JC, Suzuki WA. The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: a review. Brain Plast. 2017;2(2):127-152.
  16. Hossain MN, et al. The impact of exercise on depression: how moving makes us happier. Cureus. 2024;16:e*. (update volume/pages if required)
  17. Fernstrom JD. Tyrosine, phenylalanine, and catecholamine synthesis and function in the brain. J Nutr. 2007;137(6 Suppl 1):1539S-1547S.
  18. National Research Council. The Role of Protein and Amino Acids in Sustaining and Enhancing Performance. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 1999.
  19. Jongkees BJ, Hommel B, Kühn S, Colzato LS. Effect of tyrosine supplementation on clinical and healthy populations under stress or cognitive demand: a review. J Psychiatr Res. 2015;70:50-57.
  20. Basso JC, Suzuki WA. The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: a review. Brain Plast. 2017;2(2):127-152.
  21. Hossain MN, et al. The impact of exercise on depression: how moving makes us happier. Cureus. 2024;16:e*. (update volume/pages if required)
  22. Heijnen S, Hommel B, Kibele A, Colzato LS. Neuromodulation of aerobic exercise: a review. Front Psychol. 2016;6:1890.
  23. Phillips C. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, depression, and physical activity: making the neuroplastic connection. Neural Plast. 2017;2017:7260130.
  24. Cefis M, et al. Molecular mechanisms underlying physical exercise-induced BDNF production. Front Mol Neurosci. 2023;16:1275924. doi:10.3389/fnmol.2023.1275924. View source
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